A CONCEPTUAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 
FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 

December 2016 

Jody R. Carr 

ARCH – Disability Law Center 

ARCH Disability Law Centre, Toronto Canada is a non-profit specialty legal clinic 
dedicated to defending and advancing the equality rights of persons with disabilities. 


1 
A conceptual and legal framework for Inclusive Education 
Jody R. Carr (Footnote 1) 
On Behalf of ARCH Disability Law Center, Toronto, Canada 
December 2016 
I. Introduction 
II. Inclusive Education: Implementing a Rights Based Framework in Canada 
III. Substantive Equality in Education 
i. How does the community school contribute to Rights and Freedoms? 
IV. The International UN Convention for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 
i. Article 24 
ii. The weight of international treaties 
V. Inclusive education and why it is important 
i. Stakeholder perspectives 
ii. SCC seminal decisions 
iii. Summary of key elements arising out of Moore and subsequent tribunal decisions 
VI. An Evolving Human Rights Based Legislative Framework for Inclusive Education 
VII. Essential Elements of Inclusive Education -Legislative and Policy Framework 
Appendix A -Jurisprudence since Moore. 

1 Jody Carr is a former Minister of Education and Early Childhood Development (2010-2013) and Post-Secondary 
Education, Training and Labour (2006, 2013-2014). He is a current Member of the Provincial Legislative Assembly 
New Brunswick, Canada first elected in 1999 at age 23. He is also currently enrolled at the University of New 
Brunswick law school. 


I. Introduction 

There has been significant evolution in Canadian jurisprudence, policy, and society at large in 
regard to education service delivery since the Supreme Court of Canada’s (SCC) 1996 decision in 
Eaton v. Brant County Board of Education (Footnote 2) ruled a student with disabilities could be removed 
from the regular classroom despite the wishes of her parents. Diversity and inclusion of all 
students in regular classrooms has become the general approach in many jurisdictions. Policy 
directives, training in inclusive practices including Universal Design for Learning and 
differentiated instruction, research and understanding on the benefits of inclusion and the harms 
of isolation; along with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 
(CRPD) -article 24 (Footnote 3), the SCC’s decision in Moore v. British Columbia (Education) (Footnote 4) and recent 
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Footnote 5) and statutory human rights jurisprudence have 
pointed to a compelling need to review provincial education legislation and related regulations, 
policies and practices and align them with these rulings and human rights instruments. 

Despite the advancements in inclusion domestically and internationally, far too many children 
continue to be isolated from their peers in segregated schools and segregated classrooms across 
Canada; “more than 40% of students with intellectual disabilities remain in segregated 
educational environments”.(Footnote 6) Children are not provided equal access to dignity and services of 
quality regular classroom instruction or community schools. Classroom teachers are not 
provided the support, resources and clarity of policies and practices to support fully diverse 
learning, which often leads to segregation within mainstream schools and classrooms as well. 

2 Eaton v. Brant County Board of Education, [1997] 1 SCR 241 [Eaton]. 
3 UN GAOR, 61st Sess., 76th Mtg., UN Doc. GA/10554 (2006), online: United Nations Enable 
http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf [CRPD]. 
4 2012 SCC 61 [Moore]. 
5 Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c11 [Charter]. 
6 Joëlle Pastora Sala, “How the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) Might Be Used in 
Canadian Litigation” (2012) Council of Canadians with Disabilities, online: 
http://www.ccdonline.ca/en/socialpolicy/poverty-citizenship/legal-protections/crpd-in-canadian-litigation citing 
Ravi Malhotra & Robin F Hansen, "The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its 
Implications for the Equality Rights of Canadians with Disabilities: The Case of Education" (2011) 29 Windsor YB 
Access Just 73 at 92. 



This paper reviews the legal obligations, through international, domestic and jurisprudential 
sources, in the context of identifying key components of a fully inclusive legislative structure and 
collaborative implementation requirements. Key Supreme Court of Canada decisions, and lower 
court and administrative tribunal decisions will be considered, as well as the United Nations 
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The paper will also consider two specific 
provincial jurisdictions and outline considerations for restructuring legislative frameworks to 
facilitate the delivery of fully inclusive public education services. Governments and school 
districts in Canada are compelled to make further advancement so that every child and society 
as a whole can benefit from the richness in diversity that fully includes students with disabilities 
in regular education. 

II. Inclusive Education: Implementing a Rights Based Framework in Canada. 

Transformation to inclusive education should be understood as providing additional support for 
teachers and students. It is about respecting human rights, international and legal obligations, 
but also about improving the quality of education, based on sound 21st century research and 
best practices. A framework for implementing inclusive education must be developed and 
sustained. The following suggestions will guide the implementation regardless of where the 
jurisdiction is starting from. 

1. Collaborative partnerships with teachers’ associations, academic experts in inclusive 
education and partnerships with family organizations are essential in the planning, implementing 
and sustaining inclusive education. 
2. Undertake a comprehensive review of current policy and education practice (particularly 
those that are based on distinct “special education” models of education). The human rights 
based framework for inclusive education requires a comprehensive understanding of inclusive 
education and a review in each jurisdiction of policy and practice to create common 
understanding of inclusive education and identify current gaps and deficiencies. 
3. Develop a plan to shift from segregated to inclusive models of education over a 3 to 5 
year timeframe. This plan will include district and school implementation plans developed 
collaboratively with educators and parent organizations. It could involve “turning off the tap” of 





new placements in segregated environments while students in existing segregated environments 
are shifted to a new system (or graduate from the school system). In some areas, this will involve 
planning the transition or repurposing special schools (including the closure of them while 
transferring resources, staff and budgets to the inclusive system). 


4. Develop and implement a plan to shift education support funding from a “special 
education model” to an inclusive “education support model”. Within this model, implementation 
of supports and accommodations that underpin human rights based inclusive education need to 
be well understood and promoted. It is important that existing resources are spent effectively 
and that new resources are obtained where needed. 
5. Ensure systemic and sustained professional development on inclusive practices. This will 
Include timely consultative technical support to Principals and educators of inclusive policies and 
practices. Creating a collaborative network and time to share challenges and solutions is helpful. 
It will also include professional development on legal obligations that create a common 
understanding of the duty to accommodate. Provincial Human Rights Commissions (or similar 
bodies) can provide important guidelines and support to this process. 
6. Implement district/school models of education support teams for school and education 
leaders. 
7. Share knowledge and best practices locally, provincially and nationally. Within Canada 
currently there are excellent examples of educators, school, and broader school systems that 
have developed policies, strategies, support models and professional learning that have 
supported the implementation of a rights based framework on inclusive education. These should 
be shared and promoted systematically. 


In the absence of a Canadian national strategy on implementing inclusive education, the 
framework above underscores the need for sharing and learning from jurisdictions that have 
achieved greater success in delivering inclusive education services. The following will explore and 
highlight developments in law that support and underpin this framework, and provide a more 
detailed framework for legislative and policy reforms. 


III. Substantive Equality in Education 

Human rights legislation, international treaties and the Charter have all been important elements 
in the advancement of diversity, human dignity and equality in Canada. 

In a seminal decision by the Supreme Court of Canada, Cory J. discussed the importance of 
substantive equality in Canadian society: 

The rights enshrined in s. 15(1) of the Charter are fundamental to Canada. […] They 
reflect the fondest dreams, the highest hopes and finest aspirations of Canadian 
society. […] In order to achieve equality, the intrinsic worthiness and importance of 
every individual must be recognized regardless of the age, sex, colour, origins, or 
other characteristics of the person. This in turn should lead to a sense of dignity and 
worthiness for every Canadian and the greatest possible pride and appreciation in 
being a part of a great nation. (Footnote 7) 

The Supreme Court of Canada has said the Charter was originally entrenched in the Constitution 
because of the collective belief that Canadian society is to be free and democratic.(Footnote 8) Enhancing 
the participation of individuals and groups in society through faith in social and political 
institutions is but one value and principle essential to a free and democratic society.(Footnote 9) The Charter 
and Human Rights laws aim to remedy and prevent the discrimination and exclusion from 
mainstream society of groups and individuals suffering social, political and legal disadvantage in 

Canadian society. (Footnote 10) 

The UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner has declared that persons with disabilities 
continue to be perceived as passive recipients of assistance rather than rights holders and have 

historically faced numerous patterns of exclusion. (Footnote 11) 

In Eldridge the Supreme Court stated: 
It is an unfortunate truth that the history of disabled persons in Canada is largely one 
of exclusion and marginalization. Persons with disabilities have too often been 

7 Vriend v Alberta, [1998] 1 SCR 493 (SCC) at para 67. 
8 R v Oakes, [1986] 1 SCR 103 at para 67 [Oakes]. 
9 Ibid. 
10 Moore, supra note 4 at para 31. 
11 The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Training Guide, Professional Training Series No. 19, 
2014 UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner page 22, online: 
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/Disabilities_training_17EN.pdf [2014 UN Guide]. 



excluded from the labour force, denied access to opportunities for social interaction 

and advancement, subjected to invidious stereotyping and relegated to institutions. (Footnote 12) 

Children with disabilities have been excluded from education and considered uneducable. 
Some have argued that people with certain disabilities (mental, learning and even physical) 
cannot be educated in mainstream schools. Often these decisions are taken without investing 
in experts or teachers able to support or ensure peer learning between children with and 
without disabilities. The result is that children with disabilities are put in segregated schools and 

classrooms, isolated from their peers, where expectations for excellence are unsatisfactory and 

detrimentally lower. (Footnote 13) 

i. How does the community school contribute to rights and freedoms? 

The education system has long been recognized as the garden that cultivates a free and 
democratic society. The Supreme Court of Canada in Ross v. New Brunswick School District No. 
15 recognized that a school defines the values that transcend society through the educational 
medium. It is a communication centre for a whole range of values and aspirations of a society 
and must be premised upon principles of tolerance and impartiality so that all persons within the 

school environment feel equally free to participate. (Footnote 14) 

The importance of ensuring an equal and discrimination free educational environment and the 
perception of fairness and tolerance in the classroom are paramount in the education of young 

children. (Footnote 15) 

The Court concluded that Human Rights Legislation guarantees individuals’ freedom from 
discrimination in educational services available to the public. Education services are required to 
be available to all students without discrimination on the basis of “religion and ancestry, amongst 

12 Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General), [1997] 3 SCR 624 at para 56 [Eldridge]. 
13 2014 UN Guide, supra note 11, page 89. 
14 [1996] 1 SCR 825 at para 42 [Ross]. 
15 Ibid at para 82. 



other grounds.” (Footnote 16) Every child has the right “to be educated in a school system that is free from 
bias, prejudice and intolerance, a right entrenched in s. 15 of the Charter.” (Footnote 17) 

In keeping with a broad purposive approach to interpreting human rights legislation, education 
of students includes not only the formal curriculum but the more informal aspects of education 
that come through interchange and participation in the whole school environment. (Footnote 18) 

To ensure these rights and values are reflected, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled a school 
board has a duty to maintain a ‘positive school environment’ by all persons served by it and be 
ever vigilant of anything that might interfere with this duty. (Footnote 19) Lamer C.J.C, was “in complete 
agreement” that there is an obligation of the school community "to work towards the creation 
of an environment in which students of all backgrounds will feel welcomed and equal." (Footnote 20) 

In order to ensure a discrimination-free educational environment, the school environment must 
be one where all are treated equally and all are encouraged to fully participate. Teachers must 
ensure that their conduct transmits this message of equality to the community at large, and are 
expected to maintain these high standards both in and out of the classroom. (Footnote 21) 

No rights are absolute 

In the context of public education, the guaranteed right to the service, practice and environment 
that persons with disabilities have is equal access to the benefits of the regular classroom and 
school learning experiences that are available to all other children. People with disabilities must 
have their unique individual needs accommodated in the regular classroom and school to the 
greatest extent possible. When their unique needs are not able to be met in the regular 
classroom the removal from the classroom must be based on objective individual assessment 
and justified as being to the point of causing ‘undue hardship’ to the service provider. Services 
provided outside the classroom should be individually based and not in congregations based on 

16 Ibid at para 35. 
17 Ibid at para 83. 
18 Ibid at para 35. 
19 Ibid at paras 42, 50. 
20 Ibid at para 50. 
21 Ibid at para 100. 


label, stereotype, and bias and that the removal from the classroom be duration specific and 
documented as part of an individual learning plan. 

IV. The International UN Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (Footnote 22) is the first 
international human rights treaty of the twenty-first century that United Nations Secretary-
General Kofi Annan declared represented the "dawn of a new era" for people around the world 
living with disabilities. The CRPD (with 50 articles) was the most rapidly negotiated treaty in the 
history of international law. Upon adoption of the CRPD by the UN General Assembly in 2006 
Annan urged "all governments to start by ratifying, and then implementing it, without delay.” (Footnote 23) 

Marking the 10th anniversary of the CRPD in June 2016 the UN stated that much more is to be 
done to fully implement the CRPD and make rights a reality for the more than one billion persons 
with disabilities around the world. (Footnote 24) 

By ratifying a convention, and after the treaty comes into force, a country accepts its legal 
obligations under the treaty. Canada ratified the Convention in 2010 with the agreement and 
support of all provinces and territories. In ratifying the Convention, Federal and provincial 
governments declared that legal domestic recognition did not require new implementing 
legislation as the guaranteed rights in the CRPD were already enacted and consistent with the 
guaranteed rights in the Charter and Human Rights Codes. Because the Charter is part of 
Canada’s Constitution and that human rights legislation has been recognized as having a quasi-
constitutional nature, it is therefore up to the Federal and provincial governments to review all 
other legislation to ensure they comply with the CRPD, Charter and human rights legislation. 

The purpose of the CRPD is to promote, protect and ensure the full and equal enjoyment of all 
human rights by persons with disabilities. The Convention marks a shift in thinking about 

22 CRPD, supra note 3. 

23 UN Press Release 13 December 2006, online: 

http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20975&Cr=disab&Cr1=#.V2FKN4cUXIU 

24 UN Press Release June 14, 2016, online: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=54225#.V2FL3YcUXIU 


disability from a social welfare concern, to a human rights based issue, which acknowledges that 
societal barriers and prejudices are themselves disabling. 

A rights-based approach to disability is not driven by compassion, but by dignity and freedom. It 
seeks ways to respect, support and celebrate human diversity by creating the conditions that 
allow meaningful participation by a wide range of persons, including persons with disabilities. 
Instead of focusing on persons with disabilities as passive objects of charitable acts, it seeks to 
assist people to help themselves so that they can participate in society, in education, at the 

workplace, in political and cultural life, and defend their rights through accessing justice.(Footnote 25) 

Article 4 of the CRPD requires provinces and territories to adopt legislative and administrative 
measures to implement the CRPD, and to take into account the human rights of persons with 
disabilities in all policies and programs. The provinces and territories are also obligated to modify 
or repeal laws, regulations, and practices that discriminate against persons with disabilities and 

to ensure that public authorities, including educational institutions, comply with the treaty. (Footnote 26) 

A rights-based approach establishes that all policies and laws should be designed with the 
involvement of persons with disability, mainstreaming disability in all aspects of political action. 

Article 24 guarantees students with disabilities the right to an inclusive education system at all 
levels with others in the communities in which they live without discrimination and on the basis 
of equal opportunity. In realizing this right, State Parties (including provinces and territories in 
Canada) shall ensure that students with disabilities receive reasonable accommodation and 
support required for effective academic and social development consistent with the goal of full 

inclusion in regular classrooms and regular schools. (Footnote 27) 

UNESCO says the Convention seeks to incorporate difference into the education system so that 
persons with disabilities learn the skills to participate effectively in a free society while enabling 
learners without disabilities to benefit from the experiences of students from diverse 

25 2014 UN Guide, supra note 11 at 10. 
26 UN Division on Social Policy and Development, online: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/disabout.htm. 
27 CRPD supra note 3, article 24.2(e). 



backgrounds. Individual differences should therefore become opportunities to enrich learning 

rather than problems to be fixed. (Footnote 28) 

Following this model, no “special” policies should be designed for persons with disabilities, 

notwithstanding the particularities needed to comply with the principle of full participation. (Footnote 29) 

The UN High Commission on Human Rights says the term “special” often arises in connection 
with persons with disabilities: children with special needs, special schools, special services, 

special institutions. The Commission further says that: 

…’specialty’ is exactly what the Convention distances itself from. Being special in the context 
of disability is not necessarily rewarding; it may lead to marginalization. 

Take special schools for example: special schools enable persons with disabilities to interact 
only with other persons with disabilities or with certain “professionals”. This forces them to 
live a situation which is not realistic since it does not reflect the diversity of society. Whom 
does this benefit then? Persons with disabilities? Persons without disabilities? It is difficult 
to see the benefits of actions/decisions aimed at keeping human beings separate. Human 
beings are social beings, and children have the right to study and play together. Diversity and 
inclusion must be the norm. (Footnote 30) 

i. What is the weight of international treaties? 

By ratifying international human rights treaties, Canada and all of the provinces and territories 
agree to ensure that domestic law conforms to international human rights guarantees. 

As noted above, the Federal and provincial position at the time of Canada’s ratification is that the 
CRPD conforms to guaranteed rights in the Charter and current human rights law and does not 
require additional legislation to become domestic law. 

The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC) has increasingly given substantial weight to Canada's 

commitment to international human rights law and conventions such as the CRPD. (Footnote 31) The values 

reflected in international human rights law help inform the contextual approach to statutory 

28 Overview of Measures Supporting the Right to Education for Persons with Disabilities, Monitoring of the 
Implementation of the Convention and Recommendation against Discrimination in Education, United Nations 
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), (8th Consultation, 2015), at p. 3, online: 
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002325/232592E.pdf [UNESCO]. 
29 2014 UN Guide, supra note 11 at 11. 
30 Ibid. 
31 Canada v Taylor, [1990] 3 SCR 892 at para 44 [Taylor]. 



interpretation and judicial review. The legislatures are presumed to respect the values and 

principles contained in international law. (Footnote 32) 

In Taylor and Ross, the SCC considered the stance taken by the international community in 
various conventions and the additional heightened importance attached to the objective of 
preventing harms caused by hate propaganda by reason of Canada being a party to these 

instruments. (Footnote 33) 

The Supreme Court of Canada affirmed in Slaight Communications v Davidson that “the Charter 
should generally be presumed to provide protection at least as great as that afforded by similar 
provisions in international human rights documents which Canada has ratified.” In that case, the 
Court pointed to Canada’s ratification of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and 
Cultural Rights as evidence that the right to work must be considered a fundamental human 

right. (Footnote 34) 

In R v Ewanchuk the SCC reiterated that the Charter is the primary vehicle through which 
international human rights achieve a domestic effect. (Footnote 35) It cited the International Convention on 
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women and reproduced several articles of 
the convention in the decision highlighting definitions and recommendations from the UN. (Footnote 36) The 
SCC further referred to and described the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against 
Women as a non-binding instrument that sets out a common international standard that UN 

member states are invited to follow. (Footnote 37) 

V. Inclusive Education and Why it is Important. 

“[T]he right to education is in fact the right to inclusive education.” 

UN Human Rights Council 2013 (Footnote 38) 

32 Baker v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), [1999] 2 SCR 817 at paras 69-71 [Baker]. 
33 Taylor, supra note 49 at paras 42-44, Ross, supra note 27 at para 97. 
34 Slaight Communications Inc. v Davidson, [1989] 1 SCR 1038. 
35 R v Ewanchuk, [1999] 1 SCR 330 at para 73 [Ewanchuk] 
36 Ibid at para 70. 
37 Ibid at para 72. 
38 Thematic study on the right of persons with disabilities to education, Human Rights Council, 2013 Annual report 
of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and reports of the Office of the High Commissioner 
and the Secretary-General, Doc A/HRC/25/29 (2013) at page 4 online: 
http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Disability/StudyEducation/A_HRC_25_29_ENG.doc [UN Study 2013] 



The United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education defined 'inclusive education' as 
follows: 

Inclusive education is based on the principle that all children should learn together, wherever 
possible, regardless of difference. Inclusive education acknowledges that every child has 
unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs and that those learners with 
special education needs must have access to and be accommodated in the general education 
system through a child-centered pedagogy. Inclusive education, by taking into account the 
diversity among learners, seeks to combat discriminatory attitudes, create welcoming 
communities, achieve education for all as well as improve the quality and effectiveness of 
education of mainstream learners. In this way, educational systems should no longer view 
persons with disabilities as problems to be fixed; instead, they should respond positively to 
pupil diversity and approach individual differences as opportunities to enrich learning for 
all. (Footnote 39) 

Inclusive education is a pedagogical and philosophical approach to high quality learning that 
benefits and accommodates diverse learning of all students in reaching their fullest potential in 
regular classrooms. 

Inclusive education is promoted by UNESCO as a human rights based approach to education in 

order to ensure equal educational opportunities for all without discrimination or exclusion. (Footnote 40) 

The right to education is a universal right recognized by international human rights law. The UN 
Human Rights Council says the CRPD recognizes that, “for persons with disabilities to exercise the 
right to education, inclusive education systems must be in place and, consequently, the right to 
education is a right to inclusive education.” (Footnote 41) Inclusive education is acknowledged as “the most 

appropriate modality for States to guarantee universality and non-discrimination in the right to 
education.” 

39 The right to education of persons with disabilities: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, UN 
Human Rights Council, Special Rapporteur on the rights to education, Vernore Munoz (2007), UN Doc A/HRC/4/29 
at para 9 online: https://documents-ddsny.
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G07/108/92/PDF/G0710892.pdf?OpenElement citing Salamanca Statement on 
Principles, Policy and Practice in Special Needs Education, para. 3 and UNESCO, Guidelines for Inclusion: Ensuring 
access to education for all, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, France, 2005, p.9. 
40 UNESCO, supra note 28 at 5-6. 
41 UN Study 2013, supra note 38 at 3. 


The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and 
Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, affirm the core principles of 


universality and non-discrimination in the enjoyment of the right to education. (Footnote 42) 

Key values of inclusive education are equality, participation, non-discrimination, celebrating 
diversity and sharing good practices. The inclusive approach values students as persons, respects 
their inherent dignity and acknowledges their needs and their ability to make a contribution to 

society. (Footnote 43) 

Inclusion also acknowledges diversity as an opportunity for learning. Not only for all students 

but for teachers and parents as well, it recognizes the relationship between the school and the 

wider community as grounds for creating inclusive societies with a sense of belonging. (Footnote 44) 

Inclusive education involves transforming the school system and ensuring interpersonal 
interactions which allow for the full learning potential of every person to emerge. It enables 
effective participation, personalized instruction and inclusive pedagogies and classroom 

instructional strategies. (Footnote 45) 

Inclusive education is a whole system approach to learning that dismantles the traditional 
‘mainstream’ education system and the traditional ‘special’ education system and transforms 
them both into a single, holistic, inclusive education system. It recognizes the need to change 
culture, policy and practice of mainstream schools to accommodate all students, including 

students with all forms of disabilities, to reach their fullest potential. (Footnote 46) 

The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has endorsed the concept of inclusive education as 
“a set of values, principles and practices that seeks meaningful, effective and quality education 

42 Ibid. 
43 Ibid at 5, para 7. 
44 Ibid. 
45 Ibid. 
46 Ibid. 



for all students, and that does justice to the diversity of learning conditions and requirements 

not only of children with disabilities, but for all students.” (Footnote 47) 

An inclusive education system is fundamentally grounded on providing necessary education 
support services structured in the school and district to support the regular classroom teacher in 
meeting the diverse needs of students in the common learning environment. Ongoing 
professional support and training must be assured and available to the classroom teacher by 
providing additional staff, such as co-teaching and educational assistants, additional training and 
planning time and one on one intervention support to individual students. Additional staff that 
may be required can be repurposed from the former special education system. 

Effective communication between teachers and support services as well as with parents and 
community agencies is paramount. A collaborative relationship and understanding is necessary 
to ensure success in the classroom. A mechanism to resolve disagreements through informal 

means, and as a last resort formal means, that is fair and respectful to all parties is required. 

The right to full participation in education requires no ‘special’ schools or ‘special’ classrooms 
based on disability. The UN Committee of the Rights of the Child says the quality of special 
schools is often more inferior to the standards necessary for children with disabilities and that 
residential institutions are also a particular setting “where children with disabilities are more 
vulnerable to mental, physical, sexual and other forms of abuse as well as neglect and negligent 
treatment.” (Footnote 48) Instead, arrangements for educational support are unique, responsive and focused 

on the individual student, within his or her personal circumstance. 

In an inclusive education system, demonstrated accountability mechanisms ensure that any 
variation or removal from the common learning environment is not arbitrary, is part of a 
documented personalized plan and invoked only after all reasonable efforts to remain in the 

47 Ibid at 7, para 17. See also Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 1 (2001) on the aims 
of education at para 67. 
48 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 9 (2006) para 47, online: 


http://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices/FilesHandler.ashx?enc=6QkG1d%2fPPRiCAqhKb7yhsqIkirKQZLK2M58RF%2f 
5F0vHrn2YtDgO4ZjHSiu4mMCNKxeV7PxOOmQZL5v2IpgSJyXYy3ETTtUI65KMAgOvcRYyPXQKoIa4QlaTvSVKFUBC0 


common learning environment have been exhausted. Variation from the common learning 
environment is for personalized learning or specialized intervention not available in the common 
learning environment and is usually temporary and duration specific and provided at the 
neighbourhood school. 

Inclusive education involves ensuring a positive school environment and combating school 
bullying. School bullying is a particular form of violence and according to the UN Committee on 
the Rights of the Child “more often than not, this form of abuse targets children with 
disabilities.” (Footnote 49) The Committee recommends when schools combat bullying to “pay particular 
attention to children with disabilities providing them with the necessary protection while 
maintaining their inclusion into the mainstream education system.” (Footnote 50) 

There has been significant research, professional development for differentiated instruction and 
Universal Design for Learning and awareness and understanding over the last 30 years around 
the vast benefits to all students within inclusive educational settings. Every province and 
territory in Canada has implemented inclusive education to varying degrees by implementing a 
combination of new legislation, policies, regulations and guidelines. 

Dr. Rosemary Tannock, University of Toronto, stated in a review of research of educational best 
practices that school-based interventions where teachers have modified their classroom 
instructional practices and used behavioural management techniques, have been found to 
improve both behavioural and literacy outcomes in students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity 

49 Ibid at para 42. 
50 Ibid para 43(e). 


Disorder (ADHD). (Footnote 51) She further stated that these same instructional practices could be 
considered best practices for all students in regular classrooms. (Footnote 52) 

Professor Catherine Cornford of the University of Ottawa says that multilevel texts allow students 
at all ability levels to engage in reading together. The use of multilevel texts accompanied by the 
differentiation of instruction and assessment promotes higher-level thinking through focused, 

whole-class discussions in which all students can participate. (Footnote 53) 

The New Brunswick government describes inclusive education in the internationally recognized 
Policy 322 (2013) as the pairing of philosophy and pedagogical practices that allows each student 
to feel respected, confident and safe so he or she can participate with peers in the common 
learning environment and learn and develop to his or her full potential. Public education is 
universal with the provincial curriculum provided equitably through Universal Design to all 
students and this is provided in an inclusive, common learning environment shared among age-

appropriate, neighbourhood peers. (2013 policy 322, 5.1) (Footnote 54) 

New Brunswick amended the Education Act in 2014 to conform to the CRPD by repealing the 
definition of ‘special education program’ and replaced it with defining the inclusive ‘common 

51 Dr. Rosemary Tannock, OISE/University of Toronto, “What Works? Research into Practice, The Educational 
Implications of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” (April 2007), Research Monograph # 3, The Literacy and 
Numeracy Secretariat and the Ontario Association of Deans of Education, online: 
http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/Tannock.pdf citing DuPaul, G.J., Weyandt, L.L. 
(2006). School-based intervention for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Effects on academic, 
social, and behavioral functioning. Int J Disability, Development and Education, 53(2), 161–176, Rowe, K., Pollard, 
J., & Rowe, K. (2005). Literacy, behavior, and auditory processing: Does teacher professional development make a 
difference? Australian Council for Educational Research, online: http://www.acer.edu.au/news/latestnews.html, 
Miranda, A., Presentation, M.J., & Soriano, M. (2002). Effectiveness of a school-based multicomponent program 
for the treatment of ADHD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 546–562. 
52 Ibid citing Martinussen R, Tannock R, with McInnes A, Chaban P (2006). Teach ADHD: Teacher’s Resource 
Manual, online: www.teachADHD.ca. TVOntario, Toronto, Canada, online: www.tvontario.org/sales/teachadhd. 
53 Catherine Cornford, University of Ottawa, “What Works? Research into Practice, Using Multilevel Texts 
Supporting Literacy in the Inclusive Classroom” (June 2012), Research Monograph # 40, The Literacy and Numeracy 
Secretariat and the Ontario Association of Deans of Education, online: 

http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/WW_Multilevel_Texts.pdf 

54 New Brunswick Department of Education (2013) Policy 322, Inclusive Education, s. 5.1 online: 
http://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/ed/pdf/K12/policies-politiques/e/322A.pdf [NB Policy 322] 


learning environment’, ‘personalized learning plan’, and ‘positive working and learning 
environment’. 

1 In this Act “common learning environment” means an inclusive learning environment 
where instruction is designed to be delivered to students of the same age and of mixed ability 
in their neighbourhood school and used for the majority of the students’ regular instruction 
hours and that is responsive to the student’s individual needs as a learner; 2014, c. 37, s.1 

12(3) The superintendent concerned shall place a pupil requiring a personalized learning plan 
such that he or she receives the programs and services within the common learning 
environment to the fullest extent considered practicable having regard for the rights and 
needs of that pupil and the needs of other pupils. 2014, c. 37, s.1 

In 2012, the Ontario government in legislation expanded the role of school boards to promote 
student achievement and well-being of students within inclusive schools that are accepting of all 
students. 

169.1 (1) (a.1) promote a positive school climate that is inclusive and accepting of all pupils, 
including pupils of any race, ancestry, place of origin, colour, ethnic origin, citizenship, creed, 
sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, age, marital status, family status 
or disability; 2012, c. 5, s. 3 (1). 

The Ontario government’s 2014 Equity and Inclusive Education Guideline defines inclusive 
education as: 

Education that is based on the principles of acceptance and inclusion of all students. 
Students see themselves reflected in their curriculum, their physical surroundings, and 
the broader environment, in which diversity is honoured and all individuals are 
respected. (Footnote 55) 

The guideline states a "positive school climate" exists when all members of the school 
community feel “safe, included, and accepted.” Principles of “equity and inclusive education are 
embedded in the learning environment to support a positive school climate and a culture of 

mutual respect.” (Footnote 56) 

55 Ontario Department of Education (2014). Guidelines for inclusive education policy development, page 87 online: 
http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/inclusiveguide.pdf. 
56 Ibid page 89. 



The guideline further states that everyone in the publicly funded education system – regardless 

of background or personal circumstances – must feel engaged and included. (Footnote 57) Students, teachers, 

and staff learn and work in an environment that is caring, safe, inclusive, and accepting of all. (Footnote 58) 

The Ontario Regulations and guidelines allow for Individual Education Plans to be used as an 
equity tool: it is designed to help ensure that appropriate educational accommodations or 
modifications are provided to students in order that they may “attend school, achieve their full 
potential, and have every opportunity to access the curriculum and participate along with all 
other students in the life of the school.” 

The Toronto District School Board recently stated in Inclusion: Creating School and Classroom 
Communities Where Everyone Belongs -a resource guide for educators and administrators, that 
in order to implement inclusive education educators will provide support within the classroom: 

Instead of removing students from the classroom, educators who opt to adapt their 
classroom structures, routines, instructional styles and teaching praxis to accommodate in-
class delivery of support are more likely to create responsive and effective spaces for learning. 
In addition, all students, not only students identified as having a disability, will benefit from 
learning within a reflexive and responsive setting where differentiated teaching strategies 
are employed.(Footnote 59) 

There are many benefits to inclusive education not only for students with disabilities, but all 
students, educational staff and the education system itself. 

Fiscal -It is less expensive to integrate children with disabilities into the general educational 

system because a single integrated system lowers administrative and transportation 

expenses.(Footnote 60) Moreover, the resources invested benefit the community in general as inclusive 

education promotes independent living and a more equal and inclusive society. Children who 

57 Ibid page 6, para 3. 
58 Ibid page 7, para 3. 
59 Parekh, G., & Underwood, K. (2015) Inclusion: Creating school and classroom communities where everyone 
belongs. Research, tips, and tools for educators and administrators. (Research Report No. 15/16-09). Toronto, 
Ontario, Canada: Toronto District School Board, page 7 online: 


http://www.tdsb.on.ca/Portals/research/docs/reports/Inclusion_Creating%20Classroom%20and%20School%20Co 
mmunities.pdf 


60 Toronto District School Board (Feb 2013). A CASE FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION. Organizational 
Development/Research & Information Services, Toronto District School Board, page 16 online: 
https://inclusiveeducationcanada.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/a-case-for-inclusive-education.pdf [TDSB] 


grow up in school together are more accepting of diversity and less likely to hold stereotypical 

views about persons with disabilities. (Footnote 61) 

Educational -A review of the research by Dr. Sheila Bennett of Brock University St. Catherine’s, 

Ontario, conducted on behalf of the Ontario Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat and Ontario 
Association of Deans of Education in 2009, suggests that including students with 
exceptionalities in the regular classroom does not have a negative impact on the academic 

achievement of the other students. (Footnote 62) Overall, students in inclusive settings are shown to 

perform better on academic measures as well as on measures of social competence. (Footnote 63) Positive 

results have been found in terms of an increase in advocacy and more tolerant attitudes on the 

part of regular students in inclusive settings. (Footnote 64) 

In a 2013 review of research, the Toronto District School Board concluded that adopting an 
inclusive model of education not only brings education systems in line with international rights 
conventions, but has also demonstrated to maintain or improve academic outcomes for 

exceptional students. (Footnote 65) 

The same review included research from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 
Development (OECD) stating that school systems that commit themselves, both in resources and 
in policies, to ensuring that all students succeed, perform better in academic results than systems 
that tend to separate out poor performers or students with behavioural problems or 

61 Carole J. Petersen, University of Hawaii, INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION: Building A Model 
to Implement Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in the Asia Pacific, (2010) HKLJ 
481-512 at 485 online: http://hl-128-171-5722.
library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/35229/1/Petersen_40HongKongLJ481.pdf 

62 Dr. Sheila Bennett, Brock University, “WHAT WORKS? Research into Practice: Including Students with 
Exceptionalities” (January 2009) Research Monograph # 16, The Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat and the Ontario 
Association of Deans of Education Research, online: 
http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/Bennett.pdf citing Kalambouka, A. Farrell, P. 
Dyson, A. & Kaplan, I. (2007). The impact of placing students with special education needs in mainstream 
schools on the achievement of their peers. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 365–382. [Bennett] 
63 Bennett, supra note 62 citing Freeman, S. (2000). Academic and social attainments of children with mental 
retardation in general and special education. Remedial and Special Education, 21(1), 3–26. 
64 Ibid citing Brahm, N., & Kelly, N. (2004). Pupils’ views on inclusion: Moderate learning difficulties and bullying in 
mainstream schools. British Educational Research Journal, 30(1), 43–64 and Farrell, P., Dyson, A., Polat, F., 
Hutchenson, G., & Gallannaugh, F. (2007). The relationship between inclusion and academic achievement in 
English mainstream schools. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 18(3), 333–352. 
65 TDSB, supra note 60 page 3. 



disabilities. (Footnote 66) Teachers and school systems in countries successful in PISA academic results “do 

not allow struggling students to fail; they do not make them repeat a grade, they do not transfer 

them to other schools, nor do they group students into different classes based on ability.” (Footnote 67) 

Social -Inclusive education is socially important because it provides a sound platform for 
countering stigmatization and discrimination. A mixed learning environment that includes 
persons with disabilities allows their contributions to be valued, as well as progressively 
challenging and dismantling prejudices and misconceptions. 

The realization of the right to education is a precondition for social and economic inclusion, and 
full participation in society. The negative impact of the unemployment of persons with disabilities 
on gross domestic product could be reduced by guaranteeing access to inclusive education 

systems. (Footnote 68) 

i. Stakeholder Perspectives 

Education International 

Education International (EI) represents educators around the world. Concepts which are central 
to Education International’s philosophy and which represent the core values and demands of the 
education union movement include: quality education as a human right, education provided by 
public authorities and available freely to all, inclusive education and equality in education and 
society and high professional status for teachers. (Footnote 69) EI believes quality education promotes peace, 

democracy, creativity, solidarity, inclusion, a commitment to a sustainable environment, and 
international and intercultural understanding. They believe education is a human right and public 
good, as stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights 
of the Child. 

66 Ibid citing OECD, 2012, p. 4. 
67 Ibid. 
68 UN Study 2013, supra note 38 at page 5. 
69 Education International, Education for All summary, online: https://www.eiie.
org/en/websections/content_detail/3273 



EI believes that teachers at all levels of education must be appropriately trained and qualified. 
National policies and action plans to achieve education for all must be developed and 
implemented in partnership with civil society, including NGOs and education unions. 

The post-2015 education goal must include concrete steps to overcome all forms of 
discrimination, including those based on disability, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexuality and/or 
socio-economic status. Every student must be taught by a qualified and well-supported 
teacher, and learn in safe, inclusive educational institutions with adequate resources and 
infrastructure, and accessible facilities. Governments have the responsibility to provide 
sufficient funding for free, quality education for all through fair and progressive taxation.(Foornote 70) 

Canadian Teachers Federation 

The professional association representing teachers in Canada is firmly committed to social justice 

and inclusion of all students in a public education system. (Footnote 71) There are several references in 

support of equity, human rights and inclusion of students with disabilities, along with proper 

support, in the Canadian Teachers Federation (CTF) Handbook. (Footnote 72) 

6.6.4 All children have the rights, privileges and benefits offered and obligations identified by 
the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, subject only to such reasonable limits as can be 
demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society. 

Teachers believe “…a strong publicly funded public education system, rooted in the principles of 
universality, equity, responsiveness and accountability, is essential to sustaining and promoting 
our democratic society working for the good of all” and that education is “…a right for all citizens 

and that programs developed should be universal, accessible and adequately funded.” (Footnote 73) 

Teachers believe in “ensuring equity and inclusiveness for all individuals in the workplace” and 
placement of children with disabilities in “the most enabling environment possible” with the 
“provision of the necessary resources.” (Footnote 74) Teachers have a policy position against “elitism, 

70 Education International (2015). An Education Goal Beyond 2015 – Education International’s call for Quality 
Education, online: https://download.ei-ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/post2015_final_eng_web.pdf 
71 Calvin Fraser, Secretary General of the Canadian Teachers’ Federation (June 2014). Speaking Up for Human 
Rights in a Democracy, Perspectives Issue # 14, online: http://perspectives.ctf-fce.ca/en/article/3035/ 
72 Canadian Teachers Federation Policy Handbook online: http://www.ctf-fce.ca/Documents/Handbook/CTFHandbook_
2015-2016.pdf#page=48 [CTF Handbook]. 
73 Ibid at 1.2.4.1 and 1.2.5.13. 
74 Ibid at 5.2.10.1, 3.20.1.4.10 and 3.20.1.4.11. 



segregation, favoritism, and the promotion of unequal opportunities for children to achieve 
educational success” in reference to privatization. (Footnote 75) Teachers endorse anti-racism education that 
promotes equity through “practising the principles of inclusion, seeking the elimination of racism 
in all its forms.” (Footnote 76) Teachers seek curriculum that “promote, support, enhance and model equity 
and respect for diversity”, buildings that are accessible and revision of classroom practices and 
all curriculum materials to eliminate discrimination based on disability and other analogous 
grounds. (Footnote 77) Teachers call for “teaching strategies which promote equity and the dignity and worth 
of the individual” and have called for “fully inclusive physical and health education programs.” (Footnote 78) 
Teachers endorse the role of “school based teams consisting of administrators and teachers 
being responsible for facilitating successful and appropriate inclusive education”. (Footnote 79) 

Teachers also state it is the representatives of CTF at local, provincial, national and international 
meetings that have “the responsibility to put forth the concept of equality in educational 
systems, and to model the principles of equity in their practices.” (Footnote 80) And to take “opposition to 
any educational program, material or instruction which promotes or condones stereotyping, 
prejudice, discrimination, intergroup hatred or racism.” (Footnote 81) A role of school based teams 
supporting inclusive education that consists of administrators and teachers is a role “which 
requires advocacy on behalf of students, parents and teachers.” (Footnote 82) 

While there is a demonstrable willingness on the part of classroom teachers to include students 
with diverse learning needs in their classrooms, real concerns from teachers remain over lack of 
training, clear policy directives, classroom management issues, collaboration and support from 
specialists, as well as a perceived lack of support and resources. (Footnote 83) 

75 Ibid at 3.11.5.1. 
76 Ibid at 5.2.1. 
77 Ibid at 3.8.3, 3.11.4.1 and 3.8.17.1. 
78 Ibid at 5.2.3.2 and 3.8.15.4. 
79 Ibid at 3.17.10. 
80 Ibid at 1.3.5. 
81 Ibid at 5.2.3.4. 
82 Ibid at 3.17.10. 
83 Bennett, supra note 62 citing Silverman J.C. (2007). Epistemological beliefs and attitudes toward inclusion in pre-
service teachers. Teacher Education and Special Education, 30(1), 42–51, Slee, R. (2006) Inclusive education: Is this 
horse a Trojan? Exceptionality Education Canada, 16(3), 223–242, Waldron, N.L., McLeskey, J., & Pacchiano, D. 
(1999). Giving teachers a voice: Teachers’ perspectives regarding elementary inclusive school programs. Teacher 



A recent consultation on a 10-year education plan in New Brunswick calls for “the supports, 
expertise and time needed to properly implement inclusion.” (Footnote 84) Educators, school leaders and 
support staff must be “well supported with the necessary staffing and professional learning.” (Footnote 85) 

Flexibility, collaboration, understanding, training, clarity of roles and access to specialists are all 
fundamental to a successful inclusive education system. 

ii. SCC Seminal Decisions 

The Eaton Decision 

The SCC ruled in Eaton v Brant (County) Board of Education, that the Ontario Education Act 
makes a clear distinction on prohibited grounds between students with disabilities and all 

others. This distinction met part 1 of a prima facie discrimination determination. (Footnote 86) 

The Court further ruled that the segregated setting, after three years of attempting a regular 
classroom setting, did not impose a net burden or disadvantage to the student and therefore did 
not violate part 2 of the s. 15 analysis. The Supreme Court did not consider the need for a 
reasonable justification defence by the government under section 1. 

The Supreme Court ruled the approach the Tribunal took to balance the needs of a student and 
determine a placement in the “best interest” of the student was authorized by the Education Act 

and conformed with s. 15(1) of the Charter. (Footnote 87) 

Education and Special Education, 22(3), 141–153, Weiner, H.M. (2003). Effective inclusion: Professional 
development in the context of the classroom. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(6), 12–18, Woloshyn, V., Bennett, 
S., & Berrill, D. (2003). Working with students who have learning disabilities: Teacher candidates speak out. 
Issues and concerns in pre-service education and professional development. Exceptionality Education Canada, 13 
(1), 7–29. 
84 Karen Power, Co-chair (2016). Expecting the best from everyone Recommendations for a 10-year education plan 
(Anglophone sector) Final Report, p. 35 online: 


http://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/ed/pdf/Publications/ExpectingTheBest-Anglo.pdf 

85 Ibid at 30. 
86 Eaton, supra note 2 at para 71. 
87 Ibid at paras 15, 73, 76, 80. 



While the Court did not declare the regular classroom as an official presumption, the Court did 
rule favourably that the regular classroom for all children was “preferred” as the “norm of general 
application because of the benefits it generally provides.” (Footnote 88) The SCC acknowledged expert 
reports advancing the rights of people with disabilities and a change in attitude towards 

integration and de-institutionalization. (Footnote 89) 

The Court also ruled in favour of the requirement for a school district to first provide reasonable 
adaptions to the regular classroom setting before considering alternative learning environments. 

Justice Lamer stated at paragraph 77: 

A decision-making body must determine whether the integrated setting can be adapted to 
meet the special needs of an exceptional child. Where this is not possible, that is, where 
aspects of the integrated setting which cannot reasonably be changed interfere with meeting 
the child’s special needs, the principle of accommodation will require a special education 
placement outside of this setting. 

The Court concluded that where a school board has “already made extensive and significant 
effort to accommodate” a student by “attempting to meet that child’s needs in a regular class 
with appropriate modifications and supports and where empirical, objective evidence 
demonstrates that the child’s needs are not being met in the regular class" that a school board is 
not in violation of the Charter or the Ontario Human Rights Code where a school board 

recommends placement of a child with disabilities in a special class. (Footnote 90) 

The 1996 SCC ruling in Eaton is based on a legislative framework from 36 years ago. There was 
still much debate around the benefits of inclusive regular classroom instruction and an 
acknowledgement by the SCC that integration had not yet been proven superior than segregated 
settings. (Footnote 91) Benefits of inclusive education were not fully understood and focused largely on the 

psychological benefits of the disabled student.(Footnote 92) 

88 Ibid at paras 68, 69. 
89 Ibid at para 58. 
90 Ibid at para 23. 
91 Ibid at para 31. 
92 Ibid at paras 22, 68, 72. 


It must be noted, that before the Supreme Court ruling, Emily Eaton’s parents transferred her to 
another school district and successfully continued her education in a fully inclusive regular 

classroom.(Footnote 93) 

In the 20 years since the Eaton decision, many other options for accommodations in the 
classroom have been developed and practiced. With what is known today about inclusive 
education and the fact Emily was fully accommodated in her classroom in her new school, it is 
arguable that more could have been done to make Emily Eaton’s former classroom work for her 
and the other children. Classroom practices like UDL have evolved, and Professional 
Development and research on the benefits of inclusion have evolved greatly. While the Supreme 
Court did not declare an official presumption for the regular classroom, they did endorse the 
regular classroom as the primary consideration. The Ontario Regulations also state that schools 
must consider the regular classroom first before placing a student into a special education 

program.(Footnote 94) 

The Supreme Court ruled that the school system must consider and sincerely provide all 
reasonable adaptations in the regular classroom as the primary consideration. Many children 
don't get a chance to even try. 

The Moore Decision 

In Moore v. British Columbia (Education), 2012 SCC 61, the SCC decided that a student was 
denied meaningful access to the general education available to all students in British Columbia 
because of his disability (dyslexia) when the school board cancelled an intensive remediation 
program for students with severe learning disabilities without reasonable justification or 
consideration of alternative accommodations within the public school. 

The SCC provided in Moore the test for discrimination in education cases based on a “human 
rights” approach, moving away from a “best interest” of the student determination in Eaton. 

93 Ravi Malhotra (2012). Has the Charter Made a Difference for People with Disabilities? Reflections and Strategies 
for the 21st Century. SUPREME COURT LAW REVIEW (2012), 58 SCLR (2d) p. 281 citing M. David Lepofsky, “The 
Charter’s Guarantee of Equality to People with Disabilities — How Well is It Working?” (1998) 16 Windsor Y.B. 
Access Just. 155, at 167-68. 
94 IPRC O. Reg s. 17 


Moore requires that accommodations to education services be available to all students and 
further obligates school districts to legally demonstrate justification for not doing so. 

The Court held that to demonstrate discrimination in an education context, applicants must show 
they have a disability; that they have experienced an adverse impact with respect to their 
education; and that the disability was a factor in the adverse impact. Once a prima facie case has 
been established, the burden shifts to the respondent to demonstrably justify the conduct. If it 

cannot be justified, discrimination will be found to have occurred.(Footnote 95) 

The test was further articulated by Justice Abella: 

The inquiry is into whether there is discrimination, period. The question in every case is the 
same: does the practice result in the claimant suffering arbitrary — or unjustified — barriers 
on the basis of his or her membership in a protected group. Where it does, discrimination 
will be established. (Footnote 96) 

In addition to legislation and regulation, the court and tribunals rely on government policy 
documents and guideline manuals, such as the “Mandate for the School System” document and 
“Special Programs: A Manual of Policies, Procedures and Guidelines” to inform their decisions. 

The SCC declared that while an education system manual allowed for a cascade model of service 
delivery for students requiring education intervention, the primary policy in the manual, 
however, is the “integration of special needs students into the general classroom whenever 
possible.” (Footnote 97) This position is consistent in Eaton where the SCC stated a decision making body 
must determine whether the integrated setting in a regular classroom can be adapted and where 
it is not possible to reasonably adapt the learning environment to meet individual needs then a 

placement outside of this setting can be considered.(Footnote 98) 

If the government fails to deliver the mandate and objectives of public education such that a 
given student is denied 'meaningful' access to the service available to all others based on a 

protected ground, it will justify a finding of prima facie discrimination. (Footnote 99) 

95 Moore, supra note 4 at para 33. 
96 Ibid at para 60. 
97 Ibid at para 38. 
98 Eaton, supra note 2 at para 77. 
99 Moore, supra note 4 at paras 35, 36, 37, 38, 40. 



The Supreme Court of Canada also clarified the educational service protected in the Human 
Rights Code is that of 'general education services' available to all students and not that of special 


education.(Footnote 100) 

Comparing the applicant student to only those other students with disabilities, full consideration 
cannot be given to whether the student had genuine access to the education that all students in 
a province are entitled to. Doing so would “risk perpetuating the very disadvantage and exclusion 
from mainstream society the Human Rights Code is intended to remedy” and risk “descending 
into the kind of ‘separate but equal’ approach which was majestically discarded in Brown v. 

Topeka Board of Education (1954), 347 U.S. 483 (U.S. Kan. S.C. 1954).” (Footnote 101) 

Accommodation and Justification for not doing so 

The SCC accepted that students with disabilities require accommodation of their differences in 
order to benefit from educational services available to all other students.(Footnote 102) The SCC has 
established that the regular classroom is the primary consideration.(Footnote 103) When the school board 
provides accommodations beyond the point of “undue hardship”, it must then legally 
demonstrate the justification of choosing an alternative placement by showing that “it could not 
have done anything else reasonable or practical to avoid the negative impact on the 

individual.”(Footnote 104) 

The decisions of the school board must not be arbitrarily based on personal characteristics. 
Education decisions must include understanding the consequences of programming and service 
decisions and that reasonable alternatives, financial or otherwise, were investigated to ensure 

the discriminatory conduct is "reasonably necessary" in order to accomplish a broader goal.(Footnote 105) 

100 Ibid at para 29. 
101 Ibid at paras 30, 31. 
102 Ibid at para 28. 
103 Ibid at para 38 and Eaton, supra note 2 at para 77. 
104 Moore, supra note 4 at paras 26, 49. 
105 Ibid at paras 43, 49, 50, 52. 



The court relies on expert opinion and advice on accommodations and interventions required to 
meet individual needs of a student.(Footnote 106) Held in Eaton and concurred with in Moore the SCC stated 
that individual needs of a student must be based on a subjective (individualized), empirical and 
evidenced based evaluation. 

iii. Summary of key elements arising out of Moore and subsequent Tribunal decisions 

Binding international conventions, Supreme Court of Canada rulings, and various human rights 
tribunal decisions in Ontario, Alberta and British Columbia all point towards a mandated inclusive 
education system where every student is welcomed in regular classrooms to learn together to 
the greatest extent possible. 

Provinces and Territories are compelled to review their education acts, regulations, policy, 
guidelines and practices and align them with the Convention for the Rights of Persons with 
Disabilities, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Convention against Discrimination in 
Education, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 
Convention on the Rights of the Child and evolving jurisprudence since Moore. 

This requires an inclusive system at all levels and access to the general education system that 
includes regular classrooms and appropriate education support services. 

Jurisprudence in education has evolved from a ‘best interest’ determination in Eaton to a ‘human 
rights’ based approach since Moore. Isolation in the regular classroom was deemed harmful in 
Eaton whereas in cases since Moore isolation in the regular classroom without reasonable 
accommodation is deemed discriminatory. 

The legal threshold for providing ‘reasonable accommodation’ to all students in the regular 
classroom is high. An equally high threshold is the obligation to legally demonstrate justification 
for denying or varying equal access to the regular classroom to the point of undue hardship. 

106 Ibid at para 47. 


Based on current human rights jurisprudence (see Appendix A) and considering the requirements 
set out in the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the following 
requirements of public education systems can arguably be established: 

1. The regular common learning environment must be given primary consideration for all 
students in schools that respect human rights; no arbitrary ‘placements’ in segregated settings 
can occur. 
2. Appropriate accommodation in the regular classroom (the “service” available to all other 
students) is a guaranteed right and necessary to the point of ‘undue hardship’. There are a variety 
of accommodation strategies that must be given ‘conscientious and reasonable’ consideration 
and attempt to the point of imposing an undue hardship. 
3. Access to the regular classroom can be varied, but it must be demonstrably justified. It 
must be shown that the classroom teacher and school district could not have done anything else 
reasonable or practical. Financial resources, lack of staff and turnover is not enough. Justification 
requires solid factual foundation and cannot rely on stereotypical assumptions. 
4. Variation from the regular classroom must be as inclusive as possible (least drastic), based 
on an individual assessment and consideration of alternatives. For instance, children should not 
be sent home from school due to behavior outbursts until a safe place in the regular school, 
supervised with support staff and assessments and behaviour intervention plans are developed 
with a plan and support to return to the regular classroom. 
5. Accommodations (services and support) and assessments (psycho-educational 
assessments, behavior management and transition plans) must be timely. Denying or 
substantially delaying access to these services is a breach of human rights legislation. 
6. Department guidelines, standards manuals, description of available services are given 
weight and expected to be followed by schools. 
7. Documentation such as report cards and email correspondence along with expert 
assessments and recommendations for support are given important weight. 



8. Communication with parents is essential; difficult relationships do not in itself justify 
exclusion. 
9. Previous school success of the individual student or success of practice in another school 
is given weight on the possibility of reasonable alternatives to accommodate. 


VI. An Evolving Human Rights Based Legislative Framework for Inclusive Education 

Education policy is evolving at the provincial, territorial and district levels. To varying degrees, 
every province is recognizing the need and opportunity to transform educational practice and 
pedagogy based on human rights and high quality outcomes. 

Many provinces and territories have identified the need to address positive school climate 
(including measures to address bullying) and have adopted positive language in legislation on 
inclusion. 

At the same time, most provinces can reform their education laws and policies to better align 
with a human rights framework and legal requirements for adopting a truly inclusive, high quality 
model of education. Some provinces have outdated legislation and policies by 20-30 years. 

Increase diversity of student needs and advocacy from parents, along with the number of 
children segregated from their peers in special schools and segregated classes, the inadequate 
support for classroom teachers and required flexibility in regular schools to accommodate 
students requires immediate action. 

A new legislative framework and collaborative implementation process for the transformation in 
thought, culture and educational practice to meet these obligations are necessary to ensure a 
high quality 21st century education system that benefits all students and at the same time 
respects every student’s fundamental and guaranteed human right to inclusive education. 


Innovative Policies for persons with all types of disabilities 

The UN CRPD defines access to inclusive and qualitative education for all, no matter 
what type of disability. The Inclusive Education Policy of New Brunswick, Canada, is 
outstanding in that regard.(Footnote 107) 

New Brunswick Policy 322 has been recognized internationally by the Zero Project 2016 as one 

of the top 5 innovative inclusive education policies in the World.(Footnote 108) Policy 322 supports New 

Brunswick’s inclusive education obligations under the CRPD and came into force after an 

extensive collaborative review.(Footnote 109) The Zero Project 2016 focused on the implementation of the 

UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: Innovative Practices, Innovative Policies, 
and Social Indicators from more than 150 countries. 

The shortlisted policies were researched by the World Future Council. The WFC research team 
conducted written interviews with representatives from governments, academia, and/or 
organizations of persons with disabilities. In total, 49 experts with and without disabilities were 
involved in this process. 

The research method is based on a unique, constantly growing network of more than 3,000 
experts with and without disabilities from all sectors of society and more than 180 countries that 
contribute with their expertise. As a result of this process, 337 nominations from 98 countries 
were received. After a multistep selection process, engaging hundreds of experts of the Zero 
Project in commenting, evaluating, and voting, a final 12 Policies/Laws/Guidelines were selected 

as this years Award winners.(Footnote 110)  

The overall goal should be to avoid spelling out an unavoidably restrictive definition 
of disability and to implement steps relevant for “all, regardless of disability,” as 
stated, for example, by New Brunswick’s Inclusive Education Policy. (Footnote 111) 

107 Zero Project Report 2016. International study on the implementation of the UN Convention on the Rights of 
Persons with Disabilities: Innovative Practices, Innovative Policies, and Social Indicators from more than 150 
countries, page 13 online: http://zeroproject.org/wpcontent/
uploads/2016/02/ZeroProjectReport_2016_barrierfree.pdf [Zero Project] 
108 Ibid at 137. 
109 Dr. Gordon L. Porter and Dr. Angela Aucoin (2012) Strengthening Schools, Strengthening Inclusion. Online: 


http://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/ed/pdf/K12/Inclusion/Inclusion.pdf 

110 Zero Project, supra note 186 at 10. 
111 Ibid at 137. 


In 2014, New Brunswick legislated a presumption for the common learning environment for all 
students, reasonable accommodations and designated responsibility to the Superintendent of 
the School District to ensure quality, inclusive education for all students in all schools respecting 
the guaranteed rights of students. 

12(3) The superintendent concerned shall place a pupil requiring a personalized 
learning plan such that he or she receives the programs and services within the 
common learning environment to the fullest extent considered practicable having 
regard for the rights and needs of that pupil and the needs of other pupils. 

Nearly all references in the Education Act to dual systems of special education and mainstream 
education were eliminated into one holistic, inclusive system, structure and terminology aligned 

with CRPD. The definition of ‘special education program’ was repealed and replaced with the 
inclusive ‘common learning environment’, ‘personalized learning plan’, and ‘positive working and 
learning environment’. 

Policy 322 clearly states that inclusive education practices are not only necessary for all students 
to develop and prosper, but also critical to building a society that is inclusive of all people and 

their basic legal, civil and human rights.(Footnote 112) 

Professional learning and support to educational staff is guaranteed: 

5. 2 A key element of sustaining an inclusive education system consists of the removal of 
barriers to learning as well as ensuring access to learning opportunities for relevant school 
personnel. The Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (EECD) and 
districts must establish and maintain a professional learning program to ensure that 
educational staff have the knowledge and skills needed to provide effective instruction to 
a diverse student population. 

The process for varying the common learning environment is defined. It must be clearly 
demonstrated that the school’s capacity to meet the needs of the student, even when supported 
by the school district and Ministry, is not sufficient to achieve the learning outcomes of the 
student in a more inclusive environment despite all reasonable efforts to provide support and 
accommodation. The time away from the classroom is duration specific and must include a plan 

112 NB Policy 322, supra note 54 at 5.3. 


on how the student will be included in the social life of the school and a plan to return to the 
common learning environment. 

Foundational Principles For Reform 

Law reform must include a new comprehensive framework and collaborative implementation 
that addresses both human rights and provides high quality pedagogical practices. 

A set of key principles for reform that are aimed at aligning education legislation, regulation, 
policy and practice with an inclusive, quality human rights education framework is needed. 

. Laws and policies that govern public education are aligned with human rights obligations. 
There is a need for all governments, education professional associations, and many school 
community partners to acknowledge that education policy and practice in some jurisdictions 
is not aligned with an obligated human rights, quality education framework for inclusive 
education. Provincial education systems, schools and partners need to recognize the value to 
society in including all students. There is still far too much segregation and congregation 
based on disability that is harmful to individuals and society as a whole. 

. Openness and collaboration is paramount to pursuing education reform. All partners must 
be open to listen, learn and understand from each other in developing and implementing an 
inclusive education plan. It is imperative that teachers and others are involved in developing 
a new legislative framework and a collaborative implementation process actively involving 
teachers, parents, academics in both education and legal faculties and civil non-profit 
organizations. All partners must have a common understanding of the challenge and 
opportunity and work to face these together. 

. View inclusive education as a way to change the entire education system so that each 
learner is included in better quality education. There is one, integrated, single public 
education system for all students that has built in, clear terminology and the legislative 
structure of support is merged into educational support services for all students and 
classroom teachers. Inclusion is inclusive of all students and diversity. The elements of an 
inclusive system require clarity in definition, guidelines and support. All school and education 
leaders at all levels have a responsibility to ensure that education services are inclusive and 
of high quality for all students. 

. Supports and accommodations are broadly available. All partners must be assured that well 
developed structures and systems for providing support and accommodations are available 
as required. Adequate availability of specialists, educators and other educational support 
staff along with training is essential. Sufficient and accountable funding will be needed. 


VII. Essential Elements of an Inclusive Education Legislative and Policy Framework 

Based on case law, the CRPD, research and practice, the following essential elements are required 
to ensure an inclusive legislative framework. Examples of best practices in legislation and policy 
have been provided where available. 

1. General statement 
2. One system of education with definitions of common terminology that are inclusive 
3. Responsibility for inclusive, quality education begins at the highest levels 
(superintendents, principals), 
4. All students are presumptively placed in the common learning environment with 
reasonable accommodation 
5. Personalized learning plans 
6. Variation of the learning environment is justified and documented 
7. No special schools or segregation based on (dis)ability 
8. School based and district education support teams. 
9. Assurance for training and support to educators 
10. Communication with parents, Dispute Resolution and Appeal Process 
11. Monitoring, oversight, accountability 
12. Involvement by partners 


1. General statement – This will clearly articulate support for rights based inclusive and quality 
education. Establishing quality education is at the core of an inclusive education system. 
Education legislation that acknowledges that all students regardless of characteristics have a 
right to a public education in a system that is inclusive and equitable. 

Alberta WHEREAS the Government of Alberta recognizes the importance of an 
inclusive education system that provides each student with the relevant 
learning opportunities and supports necessary to achieve success; 

Board responsibilities 
33(1) (e) provide a continuum of specialized supports and services to 
students that is consistent with the principles of inclusive education,(Footnote 113) 

New Brunswick 5.3 Inclusive education practices are not only necessary for all students to 
develop and prosper, but also critical to building a society that is inclusive 
of all people and their basic legal, civil and human rights.(Footnote 114) 

113 Education Act, SA 2012, c E-0.3, Preamble, s. 33(1)(e). 
114 Policy 322, supra note 54, s. 5.3. 


2. One system of public education with definitions of common terminology that are inclusive. 
The “special” education and “mainstream” structures, terminology and education support 
services are merged together into one, integrated, single education system. “Special needs” 
student, “special” class and “special education” terminology is replaced with “inclusive 
education”, “student”, “common learning environment” and “education support teacher and 
services” 

New Brunswick 1 In this Act “common learning environment” means an inclusive learning 
environment where instruction is designed to be delivered to students of the 
same age and of mixed ability in their neighbourhood school and used for the 
majority of the students’ regular instruction hours and that is responsive to the 
student’s individual needs as a learner; 2014, c. 37, s.1 

“personalized learning plan” means a personalized plan for a pupil that 
specifically and individually identifies practical strategies, goals, outcomes, targets 
and educational supports and designed to ensure the pupil experiences success in 
learning that is meaningful and appropriate, considering the pupil’s individual 
needs; 2014, c. 37, s.1 

“positive learning and working environment” means a safe, productive, orderly 
and respectable learning and working environment free from bullying, 
cyberbullying, harassment and other forms of disruptive or non-tolerated 
behaviour or misconduct, including behaviour or misconduct that occurs outside 
school hours and off the school grounds to the extent the behaviour or 
misconduct affects the school environment; 2014, c. 37, s.1  (Footnote 115) 

3. Responsibility for inclusive, quality education begins at the highest levels. (superintendents 
and principals) Inclusive education requires a whole system approach to supporting the 
diverse needs of all children in common learning environments. It is the collective 
responsibility of all school, district and Ministry personnel to serve, accommodate and 
evaluate all students. It is therefore imperative that leadership be provided at all levels, such 
as giving a clear mandate to the Superintendent for quality and inclusive education. 
Ontario 169.1 (1) Every board shall, 

(a) promote student achievement and well-being; 

(a.1) promote a positive school climate that is inclusive and accepting of 
all pupils, including pupils of any race, ancestry, place of origin, colour, 
ethnic origin, citizenship, creed, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, 
gender expression, age, marital status, family status or disability; 2012, 
c. 5, s. 3 (1).(Footnote 116) 


115 Education Act, SNB 1997, c E-1.12, s. 1. 
116 Education Act, RSO 1990, c E.2, s. 169.1. 


New Brunswick 48(2) The duties of a superintendent, with respect to the school district for 
which the superintendent is appointed or reappointed, include 

(a) providing leadership in the school district in promoting quality 
education, inclusive education, enhanced community involvement and the 
efficient delivery of services, 2014, c. 37, s.4 (Footnote 117) 

4. All students are presumptively placed in the common learning environment with 
reasonable accommodation. Inclusive education laws must be clear that every student has 
access to the common learning environment with reasonable accommodation. Reasonable 
Accommodation is guaranteed in the CRPD and human rights legislation. It includes not only 
access to curriculum but also ensuring universal access to buildings and extra-curricular 

activities as well. 
Saskatchewan 178 (9) A board of education or the conseil scolaire, as the case may be, 
shall take steps to reasonably accommodate a pupil with intensive needs 
in the regular program of instruction.(Footnote 118) 
Nova Scotia 26 (1) It is the duty of a teacher in a public school to 
(f) acknowledge and, to the extent reasonable, accommodate differences 
in learning styles (Footnote 119) 
New Brunswick 12(3) The superintendent concerned shall place a pupil requiring a 
personalized learning plan such that he or she receives the programs and 
services within the common learning environment to the fullest extent 
considered practicable having regard for the rights and needs of that pupil 
and the needs of other pupils. (Footnote 120) 
6.1 Common Learning Environment 
It is the responsibility of all school personnel to ensure that the common 
learning environment: 
6.1.1 Is enabling each student to participate fully in a common 
environment that is designed for all students. It is appropriate for the 
student’s age and grade, is shared with peers in their neighbourhood 
school, and respects learning styles, needs and strengths. 
6.1.2 Is a common environment where student-centered learning 
principles are applied (e.g., Universal Design for Learning, learning 
outcomes, instruction, assessment, interventions, supports, 
accommodations, adaptations and resources). 
6.1.3 Is giving consideration to accommodations and implements them in 
a timely manner. (Footnote 121) 

117 Supra note 115 at s. 48(2). 
118 The Education Act, 1995, SS 1995, c E-0.2, s. 178(9). 
119 Education Act, SNS 1995-96, c1, s. 26(1). 
120 Supra note 115, s. 12(3). 
121 Policy 322, supra note 54, s. 6.1. 



5. Personalized learning plans. An inclusive education system focuses less on ‘placement’ and 
more on educational support. The shift to “personalized” education plans supports the ‘one 
system for all students approach’ (instead of having parallel “regular” and “special education” 
systems). The concept of personalized learning can also be extended to students who do not 
have a diagnosed disability but who may benefit from a greater degree of personalization of 
learning (for example, students who are gifted or who struggle but who do not have an 
identified disability). 

New Brunswick 12(1) A personalized learning plan shall be developed for a pupil if the 
superintendent concerned, after consulting with qualified persons, 
determines that the physical, sensorial, cognitive, social-emotional or 
other needs of the pupil requires that a personalized learning plan be 
developed. (Footnote 122) 

6. Variation of learning environment is justified and documented. Inclusive education does not 
mean 100% of students are in the regular classroom 100% of the time. No human right is 
absolute. Students leave the classroom on a regular basis for a variety of interventions, 
support services or to pursue project based or independent learning. When contemplating 
the removal of a student from the common learning environment for reasons linked with 
disability the school system must demonstrate that it has tried and have exhausted all other 
means available. The process must be justified, documented, duration specific and include a 
plan for return to the common learning environment. 
*see New Brunswick Policy 322 and Saskatchewan Legislation 

7. No special schools or segregation based on disability. It is advised that education laws 
explicitly forbid the denial of admission into mainstream schools and classrooms based on 
disability. Impairment based assessment to assign schools and classrooms should be 
discontinued. 
New Brunswick 6.2.2 The following practices must not occur: 
1) Segregated, self-contained programs or classes for students with 
learning or behavioural challenges, either in school or in community-based 
learning opportunities. 
2) Alternative education programs for students enrolled in kindergarten to 
grade eight. (Footnote 123) 


8. School based and district education support teams. This practice has emerged as a 
recognized best practice and should be a required element of a new legal framework on 
inclusive education. 


122 Supra note 115, s. 12(1). 
123 Policy 322, supra note 54, 6.2.2. 


New Brunswick Education support teacher: a certified teacher working in the public 
education system to support classroom teachers in developing, 
implementing and evaluating instructional strategies to ensure student 
success in learning, as well as providing direct instruction to individuals or 
small groups of students where appropriate. 
School-based Education Support Services Team: a team led by the school 
principal that assists classroom teachers to develop and implement 
instructional and/or management strategies and to coordinate support 
resources for students with diverse needs. In addition to school 
administrators, the team is made up of Education Support teachers and 
other staff members whose primary role is to strengthen the school’s 
capacity to ensure student learning. 
District Education Support Services Team: the district level professionals, 
under the supervision of the Director of Education Support Services, who 
provide support to schools, teachers and school-based education support 
services (school-based ESS) teams in meeting the needs of students.(Footnote 124) 

9. Assurance for training and support to educators. It is imperative that training and proper 
support be provided to educators and administrators when implementing and sustaining 
inclusive education. Providing this in Legislation or policy reassures educators and parents in 
the education system that support is mandated. 

New Brunswick 6.2 Supports for Inclusion. EECD, as well as school districts, must establish 
and maintain systemic supports for public education that make inclusion 
of all students a practical reality. These supports include personnel, as well 
as policy, funding and capacity-building strategies. They need to be 
systemic and ongoing. 

6.13.2 On-going professional development for administrators, teachers, 
educational assistants, and other professionals is essential to the 
implementation of inclusive education and is reflected in the school 
improvement plan and the district education plan. (Footnote 125) 

10. Communication with parents, Dispute Resolution and Appeal Process. Assurance of 
communication with parents, adequate dispute resolution and formal appeal processes that 
are fair to all involved and easily navigable is essential. 

Role of Parents 

Alberta 11 (5) Before providing specialized supports and services to a student, a board 
shall 

(a) consult with the parent of the student, and 
(b) where appropriate, consult with the student. 


124 Ibid, s. 3.0. 
125 Ibid, s. 6.13.2 & 6.2. 



Parent responsibilities 
32 (d) ensure that the parent’s conduct contributes to a welcoming, caring, 
respectful and safe learning environment, 


(e) co operate and collaborate with school staff to support the delivery of 
specialized supports and services to the child, 
(f) encourage, foster and advance collaborative, positive and respectful 
relationships with teachers, principals, other school staff and professionals 
providing supports and services in the school (Footnote 126) 


New Brunswick 13(2) The parent of a pupil has a right to reasonable consultation with the 
pupil’s teacher or the principal of the school the pupil attends with respect 
to the education of the pupil. 

13(3) It is the responsibility of the parent of a pupil and of school personnel 
to conduct themselves in a respectful manner and to follow established 
procedures when involved in communications concerning the pupil. 2012, 
c.21, s.2 (Footnote 127) 

Saskatchewan 178 (7) If a pupil has been assessed in accordance with this section as being 
a pupil with intensive needs, the teacher or principal of the pupil shall 
confer with the parent or guardian of the pupil with respect to: 

(a) the assessment of the pupil; and 
(b) the educational services that may be required to meet the learning 
needs of the pupil. (Footnote 128) 


Appeal Process 

Virtually all provinces have legislated formal appeal mechanisms. It is recommended that 
educators and administrators have strong communication skills, including dispute resolution 
training. When utilized, these skills will resolve many disagreements and misunderstandings. 
Formal appeal mechanisms should be used as a last resort, but if utilized must be fair and 
objective to all parties involved and respect principles of procedural fairness, including 
timeliness and be easily navigable for parents and guardians with limited access to 
professional legal counsel. 

Alberta School dispute resolution 
41 A board shall establish a policy respecting the resolution of disputes or 
concerns at the school level between parents and school staff that 
supports a co-operative and collaborative learning environment for 
students. (Footnote 129) 

126 Supra note 113, ss. 11, 32. 
127 Supra note 115, s. 13. 
128 Supra note 118, s. 178(7). 
129 Supra note 113, s. 41. 


Onerous processes for identification, placement and appeals have been recipients of growing 
criticism with the need to streamline or eliminate them. Not only are identification processes 
that are used to categorize students with disabilities not in-line with an inclusive education 
system, it can take much needed resources away from providing essential support to 
classroom educators. A 2005 analysis by the Ontario Auditor General of the Identification, 
Placement and Review Process stated that the Ministry should consider the greatest benefit 
to students when deciding the most effective use of resources, citing that the IPRC process is 
‘resource intensive’. (District identification committee, district special education appeal 
committee, provincial special education appeal tribunal.) (Footnote 130) 

11. Monitoring, oversight, accountability. Inclusive Education depends upon effective 
monitoring by national and provincial authorities, in order to undertake sustainable, 
continuous improvement that otherwise prevents student success. Endorsing Human Rights 
Tribunal Guidelines on inclusive education in Ontario and New Brunswick for example can 
provide guidance. Also, school review processes that have clearly designed indicators on 
inclusive practice can be developed to support on-going review and positive support to school 
leaders and educators. 
New Brunswick 6.13.1 The superintendent must monitor and evaluate the performance of 
each school based on appropriate performance indicators for inclusive 
education. (Footnote 131) 


12. Involvement by partners. Many provinces and territories have legislative provision to 
establish permanent provincial and/or district advisory/implementation committees made 
up of educational leaders, ministry officials, and community partners such as parent 
organizations, people with disabilities and other underrepresented individuals along with 
academia. Other partners to be engaged are Human Rights Tribunals, Child Ombudsman’s 
offices and other government departments and agencies. A role of this mechanism is to assist 
in promoting awareness, support and sharing best practices for accommodating diversity in 
inclusive education settings. 


APPENDIX A -Jurisprudence since Moore 

RB v Keewatin-Patricia District School Board 

The first decision of the Ontario Human Rights Tribunal (HRTO) within an education context since 
the legal framework regarding disability accommodation in public school was affirmed in Moore 
is RB v Keewatin-Patricia District School Board.(Footnote 132) The Tribunal found a student was discriminated 
against at school in grades 2 and 3 when his regular classroom EA support was cut in half, when 
he did not have an appropriate and timely behaviour management plan from Grade 2 onwards, 
when he was excluded from public school in October 2012 without appropriate educational 

130 TDSB supra note 60 at 9, 10. 
131 Policy 322, supra note 54, s. 6.13.1. 
132 R.B. v Keewatin-Patricia District School Board, 2013 HRTO 1436 [R.B.] 



instruction, and when a communication ban denied his parent the opportunity to meet with 
teachers and EAs in order to ensure that his needs were met. 

The HRTO found that the student was denied ‘meaningful access to education’ in the regular 
classroom, there was a prima facie case of discrimination and that the school board could not 
justify excluding the student as an undue hardship defence whose needs were unable to be met 
in the regular classroom. 

The HRTO found that notwithstanding a difficult relationship between the school and the 
student's mother, it was insufficient to justify the discrimination experienced by the student.(Footnote 133) 
The HRTO went further and held that the school board punished the student because of his 
mother's advocacy.(Footnote 134) 

R.B was diagnosed with an Intellectual Disability (Mild), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 
("ADHD" and Pervasive Development Delay. He has challenges with fine motor skills, expressive 
language, gross motor, auditory and visual attention and memory skills.(Footnote 135) 

Behaviour, Exclusion and Segregation 

The student was excluded from school for a duration of four months by the Principal for 
inappropriate behaviour including swearing, using profanity, spitting, yelling, cutting a child's 
sweater, stomping on a child's leg, throwing material and being non-compliant with his teacher, 
educational assistant, Vice-Principal and Principal. The Notice of Exclusion stated the student's 
return to school was conditional upon the completion of a psychological assessment by the 
school psychologist and the school being confident the student's return would not compromise 
the physical and mental well-being of the student and his classmates.(Footnote 136) 

The HRTO confirmed that when a student is excluded from school, he is denied an education. The 
HRTO further stated that providing a student three hours of instruction per week in a public 
library, regardless of the effectiveness of that instruction, is not an appropriate education.(Footnote 137) The 
Tribunal also said there were “less drastic options” available to the school. It could have 
temporarily placed R.B. in a segregated setting at school pending an assessment as to why his 
behaviour was escalating so significantly. It could have set up a meeting with his parents, Dr. 
Sullivan and the educators to determine how to deal with R.B.'s behaviour pending the 
assessment. When the assessment was prepared by Dr. Stambrook after the exclusion, R.B. 
should have been transitioned back to the regular classroom on a gradual basis with a behaviour 
plan in place. Dr. Stambrook did not identify any risk in returning R.B. to school provided the 
appropriate supports were in place.(Footnote 138) 

133 Ibid at para 138. 
134 Ibid at para 261. 
135 Ibid at paras 11, 25. 
136 Ibid at para 98. 
137 Ibid at paras 99, 256. 
138 Ibid at para 260. 


In its ruling, the Tribunal ordered that in the future event the student is required to be removed 
from the classroom because of his behaviour, he will be placed in a supervised location within 
the school and provided with the support of an Educational Assistant, a Resource Teacher or 
other qualified personnel. R.B. will only be removed from the classroom where it is not possible 
to accommodate him in the classroom and for no longer than is necessary.(Footnote 139) 

Parental involvement 

The Tribunal stated that communication is an integral part of education and that a school board 
has a high burden to prove it cannot educate or accommodate a student because of the conduct 
of a parent.(Footnote 140) When making support service decisions the parents and experts should be 
involved and notified.(Footnote 141) The school boards negative and difficult relationship with the student’s 
mother is not an appropriate basis to justify exclusion.(Footnote 142) 

Documentation and expert opinion 

Not only has this case shown that it is important for parents to document all interactions with 
the school while advocating for their children, the school system and Tribunals rely heavily on 
outside agencies and experts in diagnosis, classroom accommodation, intensive therapy and 
rehabilitation services and behavior management.(Footnote 143) 

Accommodations and Support 

Inclusion in the classroom is possible when support is provided adequately to the classroom 
teacher, with objective evidence based decision making and working collaboratively between the 
school, home and community agencies. Accommodations implemented or recommended for 
this student included indirect support, environmental accommodations such as strategic seating, 
structured and predictable classroom environments, assistance from Resource Teachers, shared 
and one on one Educational Assistant support, a customized, visual schedule, speech language 
service, temporary breaks to the library when needed.(Footnote 144) 

The Tribunal determined that is was a significant decision to reduce classroom EA support by 
50%. It was a decision regarding support services that lacked an evidenced based, objective 
assessment, lacked parental involvement and discussion, was contrary to professional 
recommendations for support and was without consideration of alternatives to replace the 
Education Assistant services in the classroom with a resource teacher, for example. 

139 Ibid at para 277. 
140 Ibid at paras 257, 259. 
141 Ibid at para 231. 
142 Ibid at para 266. 
143 Ibid at paras 228, 247, 256. 260, 278. 
144 Ibid at paras 19. 22, 27. 



Justification Defense 

The Tribunal stated that financial consideration does not justify a reduction in services to 
accommodate students in the classroom.(Footnote 145) 

L.B v TDSB (Footnote 146) 

Using the discrimination test in Moore the Ontario Human Rights Tribunal (HRTO) found that the 
Toronto District School Board discriminated against L.B. for not providing the appropriate 
accommodations in the regular classroom to meet his identified education needs.(Footnote 147) L.B. was 
pulled from public school by his mother after seven months into his grade 9 year. (Footnote 148) L.B. did not 
receive access to mandated educational accommodations and services offered by the School 
Board and one or more of his disabilities were a factor in this. 

Where Moore and RB/Keewatin cases were deemed discrimination as a result of direct action of 
the school board, L.B v TDSB stated that the Code also protects from indirect adverse 
discrimination by omission. (Footnote 149) 

L.B. was a 14-year-old boy with multiple disabilities which includes learning disabilities, attention 
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and mental health disabilities which primarily manifest 
themselves as anxiety and depression. (Footnote 150) 

The Tribunal, in defining the services that school boards are obligated to provide to their resident 
pupils, found that the school board did not accommodate L.B. to the point of undue hardship in 
accordance with the Human Rights Code and its obligations under the Education Act. The school 
board failed to provide services and supports to L.B. “that were or should have been reasonably 
available to accommodate his disabilities in the regular classroom.” (Footnote 151) 

The HRTO confirmed that the Human Rights Code has primacy over all other legislation in the 
Province meaning that it is expected and must be assumed that school boards implement the 
Education Act in accordance with their Code obligations. 

The HRTO highlighted that section 169.1 of the Education Act sets out the criteria for creating an 
inclusive and accepting school environment in accordance with the Code for the purposes of 
assuring appropriate and meaningful access to education for all pupils. (Footnote 152) 

145 Ibid at paras 226, 227, 228, 231. 
146 L.B v TDSB, 2015 HRTO 1622 [L.B.] 
147 Ibid at para 154. 
148 Ibid at para 118. 
149 Ibid at para 120. 
150 Ibid at para 3. 
151 Ibid at para 17. 
152 Ibid at para 17. 



SERVICE -Residential Schooling 

The HRTO ruled that the school board was not responsible for paying for private schooling for 

L.B. after his mother pulled him out of the public school for not being adequately accommodated. 
Private schooling outside of the legislative mandate of the Education Act is not a service the 
school board is obligated to provide. (Footnote 153) When L.B was pulled from public school TDSB's 
obligations to accommodate him were truncated. That is why the period during which the TDSB 
discriminated against L.B. is only the first seven months of L.B.'s Grade 9 year.(Footnote 154) The Tribunal 
ruled the situation was different from the situation in Moore because the school professionals in 
that school board initiated and recommended private schooling for Jeffrey.(Footnote 155) 

The HRTO ruled that the service provided by school boards is a “regular daily school educational 
program” authorized by Regulation 298, Operation of Schools, that sets out the instructional day 
as five hours between the hours of 8am and 5pm, and does not include the purchase of services 
from private schools.(Footnote 156) 

Service obligated under the Code 

School boards are expected to modify their programs and services to meet the needs of their 
exceptional students and to accommodate the students' needs to the point of undue hardship.(Footnote 157) 
This includes but is not limited to the provision of transportation, home instruction, social work, 
attendance counselling, psychology, peer tutoring, peer mentoring or referral to alternative 
educational settings.(Footnote 158) 

During the disputed 7-month period, L.B. was not accommodated in the regular classroom to the 
point of undue hardship. He was not seen by any professional staff, he did not have access to all 
the supports included in his IEP and his mother was not informed of any alternatives to removing 
him from the school to meet his needs.(Footnote 159) 

Delay in Assessments and Accommodations 

The HRTO ruled that where services, supports and accommodations or discussion of alternative 
placements are delayed significantly or do not take place at all, the accommodations are clearly 
inadequate. These are services that are within the mandate of all school boards. Thus, denying 
or substantially delaying access to these services can amount to a substantive breach of the 
Code.(Footnote 160) 

153 Ibid at paras 110, 111, 113. 
154 Ibid at para 149. 
155 Ibid at para 145. 
156 Ibid at paras 100, 111. 
157 Ibid at para 111. 
158 Ibid at paras 113, 123. 
159 Ibid at para 152. 
160 Ibid at para 129. 



Transition Planning, Lack of Staffing, staff turnover, service descriptions on website 

The HRTO ruled it is discriminatory to delay accommodations in a new school and instead take a 
'wait and see' approach to transitioning from one school to another.(Footnote 161) Identified exceptional 
students are entitled to a planned transition process between schools.(Footnote 162) Lack of staff and high 
turnover along with which lack of services are contradicted by the description of services 
available on the school board's website do not justify lack of accommodation.(Footnote 163) Not reading 
assessments or previous accommodations provided in previous school years do not satisfy the 
school boards procedural and substantive accommodation obligations.(Footnote 164) 

Previous school success 

The HRTO ruled that the school board was not able to argue it was impossible to accommodate 

L.B. due to the fact he was clearly able to be accommodated in regular classrooms in his previous 
eight years of schooling at other schools.(Footnote 165) 

Parental involvement 

Similar to other rulings, the Tribunal stated that parental conduct or 'fierce advocacy' for their 
child or lack of parental authority “cannot and must not” be used as a justification for not meeting 
an exceptional student's needs to the point of undue hardship.(Footnote 166) Even when a school's staff 
finds a parent 'difficult’ and 'a demanding parent to work with', this does not justify the lack of 
proactive steps required by the school board to ensure students are accommodated to the point 
of undue hardship.(Footnote 167) At the same time, the Tribunal ruled that parents have an obligation to 
cooperate and provide consent to the school board before certain services and accommodations 
are provided.(Footnote 168) 

University of British Columbia v. Kelly (Footnote 169) 

In 2015, the British Columbia Superior Court (BCSC) citing the decision of the SCC in Moore, found 
that Dr. Kelly was discriminated against by the University of British Columbia for denying him the 
opportunity to continue the Family Medicine Residency Program and failing to adequately 
accommodate his disabilities contrary to the BC Human Rights Code.(Footnote 170) 

161 Ibid at para 132. 
162 Ibid at para 133. 
163 Ibid at paras 135, 140, 142. 
164 Ibid at paras 136, 137. 
165 Ibid at para 138. 
166 Ibid at para 77. 
167 Ibid at paras 139, 152. 
168 Ibid at para 78. 
169 University of British Columbia v. Kelly, 2015 BCSC 1731 [Kelly]. 
170 Ibid at paras 11, 12. 



The onus of proving prima facie discrimination was on Dr. Kelly. Once established, the onus 
shifted to UBC to establish a bona fide and reasonable justification ("BFRJ") or bona fide 
occupational requirement ("BFOR") for the conduct.(Footnote 171) 

Dr. Kelly was diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Non-verbal 
Learning Disorder (NVLD). Dr. Kelly had been seeing a psychologist and psychiatrist, at the 
request of UBC to assist with resolving his difficulties.(Footnote 172) Dr. Kelly had disabilities which were 
directly connected to his assessment and evaluation, denial of access to remedial and probation 
options, and ultimate dismissal from his residency and his employment. He had proven a prima 
facie case of discrimination.(Footnote 173) 

The court ruled, citing Québec (Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la 
jeunesse) c. Bombardier Inc., 2015 SCC 39 (S.C.C.), that the third step of the prima facie test is 
whether the protected group or characteristic was a factor or connection in the adverse 
treatment. There must be a "link or nexus between the protected ground or characteristic and 
the adverse treatment" and that the goal of protecting people from arbitrary or stereotypical 
treatment is incorporated in this element.(Footnote 174) 

The BCSC ruled that despite UBC's argument that Dr. Kelly was not adversely treated because it 
provided individual accommodations based on his needs, UBC’s positive accommodations and 
the process UBC used to assess Dr. Kelly's performance and abilities are properly considered not 
under the second or third stage of prima facie discrimination analysis but instead under the 
justification defence once a prima facie case of discrimination has been demonstrated.(Footnote 175) 

The BCSC ruled the duty to accommodate analysis should include both the procedure of the 
inquiry and the substantive results of those inquiries.(Footnote 176) 

Duty to Accommodate and Justification for not doing so 

The BCSC ruled that UBC failed to meet their burden of proof to demonstrate their actions to 
exclude Dr. Kelly were reasonable.(Footnote 177) Regarding the defence justification and onus to fulfill a 
duty to accommodate, the BCSC ruled the issue is not whether any further accommodation was 
“possible”, but rather, the issue is whether UBC could have further accommodated Dr. Kelly, 
without incurring undue hardship, having regard to the entire context of the relationship 
between Dr. Kelly and UBC. It is not necessary for the individual to prove that accommodations 
proposed by experts would have guaranteed success in the Program. Rather, it is incumbent upon 

171 Ibid at para 50 citing Moore at para 33. 
172 Ibid at paras 21, 22. 
173 Ibid at paras 105-107. 
174 Ibid at paras 45, 49. 
175 Ibid at paras 86, 87, 90, 91. 
176 Ibid at paras 94, 95. 
177 Ibid at para 131. 



UBC to legally demonstrate that implementing the expert’s recommendations would have 
resulted in undue hardship.(Footnote 178) 

The BCSC ruled that because UBC was already able to implement accommodations to support 
residents who were having difficulty it was unreasonable and unconscientious to curtail access 
to accommodations that may have been provided to other residents but were not provided to 
Dr. Kelly because of his disability. The Court further ruled that in the absence of solid factual 
foundation, UBC acted on its stereotypical assumptions about Dr. Kelly and prematurely 
dismissed him from the residency program.(Footnote 179) 

Expert Opinion and Recommendations 

UBC was provided expert recommendations on alternatives to reduce Dr. Kelly’s symptoms and 
improve his adaptive functioning. These included: 

1. providing him with longer familiarization periods and allowing repeated exposure to new 
material; 
2. giving clear instructions, ideally in written form making clear the specific goals of an activity; 
3. encouraging the use of memory aids; 
4. reducing time pressure to allow mastery of steps in a task before improving speed and 
fluency; 
5. encouraging him to pursue his interests; 
6. working with a counsellor or coach to assist him in developing effective organization and life 
skills and assist in providing perspective in solving inter-personal problems; 
7. providing him with a one-to-one preceptor rotation to improve his skills in family practice.(Footnote 180) 


The BCSC ruled that it was unreasonable that Dr. Kelly was not provided the opportunity to 
demonstrate his abilities with the benefit of reasonable accommodation.(Footnote 181) The BCSC ruled that 
it was unreasonable for UBC to reject the accommodation recommendations without 
consideration upon receiving them from an ADHD expert.(Footnote 182) The court also agreed it was 
incumbent upon UBC to engage in dialogue with Dr. Kelly about these potential accommodations. 
UBC focused on the limitations that ADHD presented and not on the positive steps that might 
have been taken to address these limitations. Failure for UBC to do so was a failure to meet its 
legal duty to accommodate. The court dismissed UBC's argument that the expert 
recommendations for accommodations were not adequate because the expert had no 
experience with the Family Medicine Residency Program specifically, he was not an educator in 
the program, nor could he predict the success of the accommodations.(Footnote 183) 

178 Ibid at paras 109, 110, 111, 130. 
179 Ibid at paras 114, 115. 
180 Ibid at para 116. 
181 Ibid at para 129. 
182 Ibid at paras 123, 124. 
183 Ibid at paras 119, 120. 



The BCSC ruled that in making a legal defence in justifying their actions to exclude Dr. Kelly, it is 
incumbent upon UBC to provide substantive factual foundation to support their argument. A 
service provider is required to demonstrate more than anecdotal observations, unquantified 
financial costs, or organizational inconveniences. Much of UBC's evidence was anecdotal and fell 
far short of the standard necessary to demonstrate undue hardship or to prove a 'conscientious 
and reasonable" attempt was made to accommodate Dr. Kelly. To the contrary, the evidence 
demonstrated that UBC was able to provide accommodations, albeit it with some inconvenience, 
and that UBC's policy specifically contemplated such accommodations for all participants 
whether or not they were disabled.(Footnote 184) 

Dunkley v. UBC (Footnote 185) 

In 2015, the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal (BCHRT) following the decision in Moore, 
found that the University of British Columbia (UBC) discriminated against Dr. Jessica Dunkley for 
not reasonably accommodating her disability in the Family Medicine Residency Program. The 
BCHRT found that Dr. Dunkley was adversely treated when she was denied access to the Program 
and the cost of interpretive services was not an adequate defence to justify denying Jessica 
access to the Program. 

The Tribunal found the failure of UBC to consider financial alternatives to reasonably 
accommodate Dr. Dunkley was a similar response to the School District in Moore. The Supreme 
Court of Canada in Moore said that in order for the School District to justify “it had no other 
choice, the School Board had to at least consider what the alternative choices were when 
deciding program services for Jeffrey.” (Footnote 186) The Tribunal in fact gave the parties in this case an 
opportunity to present additional submissions after the SCC Moore decision in November 
2012.(Footnote 187) 

The Tribunal stated that to deny Dr. Dunkley the opportunity to continue in her program, without 
considering whether she could be accommodated without undue hardship, would be to 
perpetuate the historical disadvantage that the Supreme Court of Canada in Eldridge v. British 
Columbia (Attorney General), [1997] 3 S.C.R. 624, [1997] S.C.J. No. 86 (S.C.C.), paras. 54-57, 
recognized as one of the indicia of discrimination against people with disabilities in general, and 
against Deaf people in particular.(Footnote 188) 

Dr. Jessica Dunkley is deaf and is of Aboriginal decent. She has been deaf since birth and is a 
daughter of deaf parents. She received accommodations due to being deaf throughout her 
education including six years at the University of BC, four years at medical school at the University 
of Ottawa and even during her primary and secondary school years. In fact, from grades 2-9 she 
attended regular classrooms with accommodations. She had access to interpreters, note takers, 

184 Ibid at paras 127, 128. 
185 Dunkley v. UBC, 2015 BCHRT 100 [Dunkley] 
186 Ibid at para 690 citing Moore at para 52. 
187 Ibid at para 19. 
188 Ibid at para 395. 



tutors, an additional classroom resource teacher and assistive technology and devices, including 
real time captioning services.(Footnote 189) 

Amir v. Webber Academy Foundation (Footnote 190) 

The Alberta Human Rights Tribunal ruled in 2015 that Webber Academy discriminated against 
two students for not demonstrating that banning them from praying on campus respecting their 
sincerely held beliefs during school hours was reasonable and justifiable. The Tribunal cited 
rulings in Moore and Meiorin when the SCC stated that alternative approaches to 
accommodation must be investigated and that Webber Academy has an obligation to show "that 
it could not have done anything else reasonable and practical to avoid the negative impact on 
the individual." (Footnote 191) 

Despite Webber Academy's specifically stated goal of making people of all religious backgrounds 
feel welcome, its actions, objectively viewed, were not welcoming of them. Webber Academy 
had not provided the Tribunal with sufficient evidence to establish it would be an undue hardship 
for Webber Academy to permit the Students to pray on campus during school hours.(Footnote 192) 

The Tribunal cited at para 84 and 85 British Columbia (Superintendent of Motor Vehicles) v. British 
Columbia (Council of Human Rights), [1999] 3 S.C.R. 868 (S.C.C.) (Grismer) at paras 20-22 that 
exclusion is only justifiable where the employer or service provider has made every possible 
accommodation short of undue hardship. Accommodation refers to what is required in the 
circumstances to avoid discrimination. Standards must be as inclusive as possible. The standard 
was found discriminatory because it did not provide for individualized assessment. Failure to 
accommodate may be established by evidence of arbitrariness in setting the standard or by an 
unreasonable refusal to provide individual assessment. The ultimate issue is whether the service 
provider has shown that it provides accommodation to the point of undue hardship. 

The SCC held in Grismer that an exclusion from a service will not be recognized as reasonable and 
justified if the service provider can individually assess a situation and modify conditions or 
practices without undue hardship. The superintendent of Motor Vehicles failed to demonstrate 
that individual vision testing accommodating Mr. Grismer’s disability imposed undue hardship.(Footnote 193) 
To evaluate the reasonableness of accommodations used at Webber Academy the Tribunal 
considered the successful approach to accommodating prayer at other schools.(Footnote 194) In addition, 
the Tribunal held that Webber Academy's refusal to undertake a balancing analysis to at least 
ascertain whether there would be any undue hardship involved was not reasonable or 
justifiable.(Footnote 195) 

189 Dunkley, supra note 175 at paras 1, 63-65 
190 Amir v. Webber Academy Foundation, 2015 AHRC 8 [Amir]. 
191 Ibid at para 119. 
192 Ibid. 
193 Ibid at para 85. 
194 Ibid at para 111. 
195 Ibid at para 118.